Google, Amazon, Facebook and Apple – or “GAFA,” as they’re known in France – are easy to group together in the European imagination. They’re big, they’re American and they’ve tended to pay relatively little tax, thanks to legal loopholes and a business model that exists largely in the virtual world.
Frustrated governments have tried to use the courts and the hammer of EU regulators to squeeze more money out of the tech giants, but it hasn’t always worked.